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Language policy and language teacher education in the United Arab Emirates
Matthew Clarke, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong
Introduction
The Arabian Gulf has experienced startling development and change in recent years in many sectors of society, as industrialization, urbanization, modernization and globalization have all had their effects. As a result, concern is regularly expressed in the region about the preservation of local cultures and identities in the face of these forces ADDIN EN.CITE Dresch2005205620566Dresch, J PPiscatori, PMonarchies and nations: Globalization and identity in the arab states of the Gulfglobalization education UAE theory identity politics2005London I. B. Tauris(Dresch & Piscatori, 2005). In this volatile context, language education policies and practices in particular take on a particular significance.
This report presents the findings of one aspect of a larger study into the development of new teacher identities in an English language teacher education degree in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and outlines the ways in which student teachers responded to a program which aimed to foster and heighten their awareness of the social and political dimensions of language education within the current historical context of globalization. In particular, the report focuses on Emirati student teachers beliefs regarding the relationship between the global and the local and the possibilities for the local re-appropriation of the global what has been referred to as glocalization. Many of these espoused beliefs reflect either a naive optimism about the communicative benefits of global English or, conversely, a prelapsarian nostalgia for Arab-Islamic purity; however, some students engaged with the intentions of the program designers to sensitize them to language policy and practice issues and the inevitable cultural politics of language education.
The data presented were collected through researcher-led focus groups and student-led online conversations over a two year period (20024) as part of a discourse analytic study investigating the discursive construction of the student teachers community of practice (Clarke, forthcoming). The study examined the students interpersonal relations, intra-personal identities, and systems of knowledge and belief, including those relating to the sociopolitics of English language education that form the focus of this report. This report first outlines the UAE language education policy context before looking at the ways the teacher education program discussed sought to address sociopolitical issues in language education. The report then illustrates the range of responses to these strategies through brief vignettes of three student teachers, concluding with a brief consideration of the implications for language education in the region.
Language, Education and Policy in the United Arab Emirates
The UAEs embrace of global English reflects an accommodation of globalization within a policy of linguistic dualism, whereby English is associated with business, modernity and internationalism while Arabic embodies religion, tradition and localism ADDIN EN.CITE Findlow20061767176717Findlow, SHigher education and linguistic dualism in the Arab GulfBritish Journal of Sociology of EducationBritish Journal of Sociology of Education19-36271UAE politics government society social TESOL language policy English B'ham2006Kazim2000176917696Kazim, AThe United Arab Emirates A.D. 600 to the present: A sociodiscursive transformation in the Arabian GulfUAE politics government society social TESOL language policy English B'ham2000DubaiGulf Book Center(Findlow, 2006; Kazim, 2000). This dualistic approach is not made explicit in language policy documents but has evolved through practice, for as Karmani ADDIN EN.CITE Karmani20051768, p. 90176817Karmani, SPetro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and IslamJournal of Language, Identity and EducationJournal of Language, Identity and Education87-10242UAE politics government society social TESOL language policy English B'ham2005(2005, p. 90) notes, in a society without substantial governmental accountability and with relatively weak society-state linkages, language education policy and planning decisions are liable to be a hit-and-miss affair (p. 90). This hit-and-miss linguistic dualism partly explains the embracing of English as a global language that underpins, and is reflected in, the establishment of the Higher Colleges of Technology as an English medium institution in an Arabic speaking society, though it is important to note the contemporary nexus between oil and English that underlies the UAEs current rentier economy ADDIN EN.CITE Karmani20051768176817Karmani, SPetro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and IslamJournal of Language, Identity and EducationJournal of Language, Identity and Education87-10242UAE politics government society social TESOL language policy English B'ham2005(Karmani, 2005), lending as much, if not more, effective support to English as could be achieved by more coercive approaches. Nevertheless, given the important role English has to play in the region and given that its significance will only increase in coming years, a key challenge for the UAE, in common with other countries in the region, is how to resolve, or at least accommodate, ambiguities about English ADDIN EN.CITE Ramanthan20051770177017Ramanthan, VAmbiguities about English: Ideologies and critical practice in vernacular-medium college classrooms in Gujarat, IndiaJournal of Language, Identity and EducationJournal of Language, Identity and Education45-6541Critical cultural social theory culture policy education society politics language discourse power language TESOL English2005(Ramanthan, 2005) and how to reconcile the competing demands of local, regional, national and religious identities with the homogenizing tendencies of globalization and English ADDIN EN.CITE Canagarajah19991640, p.7616406Canagarajah, A SResisting linguistic imperialism in English language teachingcritical cultural social theory culture identity discourse language linguistic imperialism postcolonialism1999New York ; LondonRoutledge(Canagarajah, 1999, p.76). A solution urged by Karmani ADDIN EN.CITE Karmani20051768, p. 101176817Karmani, SPetro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and IslamJournal of Language, Identity and EducationJournal of Language, Identity and Education87-10242UAE politics government society social TESOL language policy English B'ham2005(2005, p. 101) is to explore language education policy and planning solutions that are locally based and help maintain and indeed promote Arab-Islamic values[while] expanding the hugely important role and contribution of bilingual Arab teachers of English.
English language teacher education at the Higher Colleges of Technology
The research that provides the basis for this report was conducted with student and graduate teachers part of the first generation of young women in the UAE to attend university in a new Bachelor of Education degree at the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT). The HCT is a multi-campus system, with colleges in the cities of Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah, and a central office in Abu Dhabi. The degree, which graduated its first teachers in 2004, prepares Emirati women as English teachers for UAE primary schools and was developed with the dual purpose of demonstrating the benefits of progressive learner-centered pedagogies in the dual Islamic and global contexts of Emirati schools, as well as addressing the recognized need to improve English teaching within the Emirates ADDIN EN.CITE Loughrey19991951195127Loughrey, B.Hughes, A.Bax, S.Magness, C.Aziz, H.English Language Teaching in the UAE Evaluation Report1999SurreyUniversity of Surrey(Loughrey, Hughes, Bax, Magness, & Aziz, 1999). For the women entering the degree, the chance to study at college for four years often offers a welcome change from domestic demands, and for many, teaching is one of the few career options that is acceptable to their families. In this sense, English and English teaching plays an empowering role in their lives. It also offers a potential avenue for contributing to local language policy and planning debates as we will see below.
The program is theoretically sophisticated, drawing on a range of disciplinary knowledge ADDIN EN.CITE Grabe2000205820585Grabe, WStoller, FTardy, LKelly Hall, J Eggington, WDisciplinary knowledge as a foundation for teacher preparationThe sociopolitics of English language teachingTESOL teacher education methodology2000ClevedonMultilingual Matters(Grabe, Stoller, & Tardy, 2000), while also being home grown, in that detailed program development occurred on the ground in the UAE and revisions are made according to feedback from local stakeholders. Local cultures, practices and materials are utilized as resources, as part of a process that Lim ADDIN EN.CITE Lim19911947194710Lim, CatherineThao Le Mike McCauslandthe International Conference on Language Education: Interaction and Development57-591991Ho Chi Mihn City, Vietnam(1991) refers to as cultural equivalencing or a systematic promotion of the local culture in an English language teaching programwith the aim of putting it on the same level of significance as western culture ADDIN EN.CITE Lim19911947p. 66194710Lim, CatherineThao Le Mike McCauslandthe International Conference on Language Education: Interaction and Development57-591991Ho Chi Mihn City, Vietnam(p. 66); and students college projects are linked where possible to the time they spend each semester working in local schools so as to integrate disciplinary theory and practice. The HCT program also has the explicit aim of raising student teachers awareness of the social and political issues that inevitably accompany any language education process ADDIN EN.CITE Tollefson19951654165428Tollefson, JPower and inequality in language educationcritical cultural social theory culture discourse education politics power inequality TESOL language1995CambridgeCambridge University PressCorson2001166016606Corson, DLanguage, diversity and educationcritical cultural social theory culture discourse education politics language history TESOL pedagogy2001Mahwah, NJLawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHinkel19991664166428Hinkel, ECulture in second language teaching and learningcritical cultural social theory culture discourse education politics language TESOL1999CambridgeCambridge University Press(Corson, 2001; Hinkel, 1999; Tollefson, 1995), especially significant in todays context of increasing globalization ADDIN EN.CITE Block20022059205928Block, DCameron, DGlobalization and language teachingglobalization education critical pedagogy theory TESOL English2002LondonRoutledgeEdge2006206020606Edge, J(Re-)Locating TESOL in an age of empireglobalization education critical pedagogy theory TESOL English politics2006BasingstokePalgrave(Block & Cameron, 2002; Edge, 2006).
Within the degree, the English Language Studies strand has two interlinked sub-strands: Personal Language Development and Understanding Language. Here the focus is on the Understanding Language sub-strand. In this sub-strand, students develop their knowledge of the nature of language and its uses by studying formal language systems (phonology, semantics, grammar, genre and discourse) and the related linguistic terminology. Significantly for this paper, there is also an emphasis on the social aspects of language ADDIN EN.CITE Block2003206120616Block, DThe social turn in second language acquisitionSociolinguistics sociocultural social theory SLA TESOL English second language acquisition.2003Washington D.C.Georgetown University Press(Block, 2003) including projects on discourse communities, language variation and the links between English and globalization.
For example, in one subject, students explain the concept of a global language and identify its possible benefits and drawbacks, drawing on language education literature, as well as on personal and community experience. As part of this, they examine the geographical-historical, socio-historical and cultural factors that have led to the spread of English as the global language, considering the social and economic implications this has on the contemporary UAE. In this work the student teachers are striving to live up to Tollefsons ADDIN EN.CITE Tollefson20002062, p. 1920625Tollefson, JKelly Hall, JEggington, WPolicy and ideology in the spread of EnglishThe sociopolitics of English language teachingCritical cultural social theory culture policy education society politics language discourse power language TESOL English2000ClevedonMultilingual Matters(2000, p. 19) admonition that English language educators must understand the direct and powerful impact of social, political and economic forces upon their classrooms and how these forces affect students lives. The student teachers analyze the notion of a global language ADDIN EN.CITE Rajagopalan20042064206417Rajagopalan, KanavillilThe concept of 'World English' and its implications for ELTELT JournalELT Journal111-117582critical cultural social theory culture policy education society politics language discourse power language globalization2004April 1, 2004http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/58/2/111 10.1093/elt/58.2.111De Swaan2001206620666De Swaan, AWords of the world: The global language systemglobalization education critical pedagogy theory TESOL English language politics2001CambridgePolity Press(De Swaan, 2001; Rajagopalan, 2004), a standard language ADDIN EN.CITE Bex19991658165828Bex, TWatts, RStandard English: The widening debatecritical cultural social theory culture discourse education politics language history TESOL1999London ; New YorkRoutledge(Bex & Watts, 1999) and the concept of ownership of a language ADDIN EN.CITE Hayhoe19942065206528Hayhoe, MParker, SWho owns English?globalization education critical pedagogy theory TESOL English politics culture power1994BuckinghamOpen University Press(Hayhoe & Parker, 1994), relating these issues to the development of multiple world Englishes ADDIN EN.CITE Kachru19972067206717Kachru, BWorld Englishes and English-using communitiesAnnual Review of Applied LinguisticsAnnual Review of Applied Linguistics66-8717globalization education critical pedagogy theory TESOL English language politics1997(Kachru, 1997), as well as to Arabic language debates ADDIN EN.CITE Ryding19912063206317Ryding, KProficiency despite diglossia: A new approach for ArabicThe Modern Language JournalThe Modern Language Journal212-218752UAE politics government society social language policy1991SummerNational Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associationshttp://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-7902%28199122%2975%3A2%3C212%3APDDANA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U (Ryding, 1991) and to debates about native speaker versus non-native speaker teachers of English ADDIN EN.CITE Braine19991676167628Braine, GNon-native educators in English language teachingcritical cultural social theory culture discourse education politics language teacher TESOL identity ethnicity postcolonial1999Mahwah, NJLawrence Erlbaum Associates(Braine, 1999), while reviewing the implications of all these complex questions for English language teaching in the UAE in the areas of curriculum and assessment, as well as for themselves as future English teachers. An example of such work is a project on the language situation in another country. As part of this students identify the languages used in the country, including their origin, evolution and current role in social and institutional life in the country. Particular attention is paid to questions of institutionalized status and to any policies relating to the use of languages in spheres such as education, law and government. The students findings are shared through presentations so that the whole group can compare and contrast their own findings with those of their peers investigating other countries and contexts.
Three Student Teachers Voices
Reponses to the way the cultural politics of English was treated in the program varied considerably, however, three distinct positions emerged in the data, including nave celebration of English, nostalgia for Islamic-Arabic purism and pragmatic engagement with and response to the sociopolitical implications of English language. Each position is briefly illustrated below through brief vignettes of specific students.
In discussing their attitudes towards English and its role in the UAE, some students focused on the ubiquitous presence of English and its associations with mass media culture:
When I was a child I said to my parents I want to be a teacher. And especially English, because when I turn on the TV and see the movies, especially English movies, I want to speak like thatthat was my dream. And its becoming real. English is around us everywhere, especially in the UAE now. (Isha, focus group discussion, 16 April, 2003)
Ishas accepting and approving attitude seems to reflect an uncritical colonization by global English, with little evidence of awareness of the sociopolitical implications, let alone threats, inhering in language policies and practices. It is as if she lives in a world of free agents, without social constraints or compromises.
At the other end of the spectrum were a minority of student teachers who perceived little but threats from English, as in the following, in an online posting from Fakhra, revealingly entitled English textbook versus our tradition and culture:
These books present the characters in different clothes than the ones the learners wear and their foods are different as well. So the child will be shocked about their own culture and traditions Therefore the child will try to imitate whatever interests him from these books even if he is not sure about it. (Fakhra, online posting, 27 September, 2003)
These comments reflect a vision of the world where languages and cultures are uncompromisingly opposed, where social structures are all determining and individuals are reduced to cultural dupes. Neither of the two positions above reflects the sort of sophisticated awareness of the connections and potential for dialogue between language policies and classroom practices that the program designers aimed for. They embody a perspective on English and globalization focused solely on the homogenizing aspects of global English, rather than the possibilities that global flows of language and cultures open up ADDIN EN.CITE Pennycook20072165, p. 1821656Pennycook, AGlobal Englishes and transcultural flowscritical cultural social theory culture action education society politics language discourse power language TESOL globalization2007LondonRoutledge(Pennycook, 2007, p. 18), whilst contributing little to the articulation of locally derived language policy and planning solutions that Karmani calls for above. However, a significant minority of student teachers did exhibit such capacities. For example, Salma offered detailed advice on how to capitalize on cultural differences in the language classroom:
What we are supposed to do is adapt and relate to our culture. I dont believe in sheltering our students from western culture and I dont believe in making them accept it without questioning. What we should do is show them the bad and good of it and provide them with the knowledge and thinking skills that they need to make their own judgment about it and choose whats useful and reject whats not. (Salma, online posting, 3 October, 2003)
In contrast to Fakhra, Salma sees the raising of cultural differences resulting from particular language policies in relation to textbooks as providing opportunities for heightening students critical awareness of linguistic and cultural issues and for increasing their critical agency in responding to structural constraints. The general thrust of Salmas argument here reflects Lims (1991) concept of cultural equivalencing (see above), while her recommendation for providing students with the capacity to critique English and the culture that accompanies it is an instance of what Pennycook (1994) describes as encouraging students to talk back to the foreign culture as a countering strategy:
When we were in schools, we were told that we should learn English because it would make us better human beings. Now what I want to do is teach my students English so they can tell others that we are good human beingsI want them to communicate our ideas, our culture. (Salma, focus group discussion, 14 October, 2002)
While clearly aware of issues of power and inequality in language education, Salma is not willing to accept being positioned as a cultural dupe with no agency and initiative of her own. She would no doubt take heart from comments by Amin Malak in his recent book, Muslim Narratives and the Discourses of English: Writers from the ex-colonies of the British Empirehave, persistently through various means, exposed, cleansed, and refashioned the English language to fit their own agendas ADDIN EN.CITE Malak20052068, p. 1020686Malak, AMuslim Narratives and the Discourses of EnglishMuslim Islam English discourse narrative language politics critical2005Albany, NYState University of New York(Malak, 2005, p. 10). Malak goes on to argue for the inevitability of mutual influence in cultural encounters: It should be axiomatic that as one language fertilizes another, the fertilizer itself becomes fertilized. Cross-pollination and creative encounters operate in multiple directions (p. 11). In a similar fashion and particularly in a global climate replete with media references to a clash of civilizations it is important that this new generation of English teachers in the UAE recognize their capacity to fertilize a predominantly west-based TESOL as well as a male-dominated UAE political elite with their views about the roles and purposes, opportunities and threats, of English in the Middle-East. Of course, as Canagarajah ADDIN EN.CITE Canagarajah20022069, p. 134-520695Canagarajah, A SBlock, DCameron, DGlobalization, methods and practice in periphery classroomsGlobalization and English language teachingCritical cultural social theory culture policy education society politics language discourse power language TESOL English methodology classrooms2002LondonRoutledge(2002, p. 134-5) points out, we should not mistake mutual influence for a democratic utopia or underestimate the ongoing operation of unequal power relations; but neither should we accept a dominant/dominated dualism that denies any and all agency to some individuals and cultures.
Conclusion
The HCT Bachelor of Education is enabling young Emirati women to take up influential positions as teachers of English in schools in a male-dominated, Arabic speaking society. The establishment of this degree reflects the UAEs dualistic approach to language policy and planning that is not made explicit in language policy documents but has evolved through practice. In this respect, the examples we have seen, of nave acceptance and linguistic-cultural bifurcation on the one hand, and talking/writing back or creating cultural equivalencies on the other, reflect the central agency of teachers in the enactment of language policy. To contribute to ongoing language policy and practice debates, this new generation of English language teachers in the UAE needs to be sensitized to the sociopolitical issues surrounding language education. Their challenge is to ensure that their voices continue to be heard and their concerns valued, without becoming essentialized or co-opted by dichotomizing agendas.
References
ADDIN EN.REFLIST Bex, T., & Watts, R. (Eds.). (1999). Standard English: The widening debate. London ; New York: Routledge.
Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Block, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). Globalization and language teaching. London: Routledge.
Braine, G. (Ed.). (1999). Non-native educators in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting linguistic imperialism in English language teaching. New York ; London: Routledge.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2002). Globalization, methods and practice in periphery classrooms. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and English language teaching. London: Routledge.
Clarke, M. (forthcoming). Language teacher identities: Co-constructing discourse and community. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
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According to a recent study of the concept ADDIN EN.CITE Khondker20042055205543Khondker, HGlocalization as globalization: Evolution of a sociological concept Bangladesh e-Journal of SociologyBangladesh e-Journal of Sociology12globalization education sociology theory2004December 5, 2006http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/Habib%20-%20Glocalization.htm(Khondker, 2004), the word as well as the idea came from Japan ADDIN EN.CITE Robertson19952054, p. 2820545Robertson, Roland Featherstone, MLash, SRobertson, RGlocalization: Time-space and homogeneity- heterogeneityGlobal Modernities25-441995LondonSage Publications(Robertson, 1995, p. 28). The term was modeled on Japanese word dochakuka, which originally meant adapting farming technique to ones own local condition. In the business world the idea was adopted to refer to global localization. The terms origins thus embody its referencing of global-local dialogue.
I initially came to the UAE as a consultant from the University of Melbourne, and later led the HCTs Education division, working in the central Abu Dhabi office. In both these roles, I was involved in all aspects of development of the HCT B.Ed. degree. Although, I was not the teacher of the students in this study, I regularly worked with and taught them.
Other strands include: Education Studies; Teaching Practice, Preparation & Review; and a series of short high interest subjects known as Complementary Studies.
Personal language competence is obviously a key area for student teachers for whom English is not a first language, though Seidlhofer, 1999, and the collection of papers in Braine, 1999, make a powerful case for the distinct advantages brought by second language speakers, who have been through many of the challenges their students face, and can be thought of as double-agents in a positive sense by virtue of their bilingual and bicultural abilities.
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